What Is Pleiotropy Definition and Examples

Pleiotropy refers to the expression of multiple traits by a single gene. These expressed traits may or may not be related. Pleitropy was first noticed by geneticist Gregor Mendel, who is known for his famous studies with pea plants. Mendel noticed that plant flower color (white or purple) was always related to the color of the leaf axil (area on a plant stem consisting of the angle between the leaf and upper part of the stem) and  seed coat. The study of pleitropic genes is important to genetics as it helps us to understand how certain traits are linked in genetic diseases. Pleitropy can be spoken of in various forms: gene pleiotropy, developmental pleiotropy, selectional pleiotropy, and antagonistic pleiotropy. Key Takeaways: What Is Pleiotropy? Pleiotropy is the expression of multiple traits by a single gene.Gene pleiotropy is focused on the number of traits and biochemical factors impacted by a gene.Developmental pleiotropy is focused on mutations and their influence on multiple traits.Selectional pleiotropy is focused on the number of separate fitness components affected by a gene mutation.  Antagonistic pleiotropy is focused on the prevalence of gene mutations that have advantages early in life and disadvantages later in life. Pleiotropy Definition In pleiotropy, one gene controls the expression of several phenotypic traits. Phenotypes are traits that are physically expressed such as color, body shape, and height. It is often difficult to detect which traits may be the result of pleitoropy unless a mutation occurs in a gene. Because pleiotropic genes control multiple traits, a mutation in a pleiotropic gene will impact more than one trait.   Typically, traits are determined by two alleles (variant form of a gene). Specific allele combinations determine the production of proteins which drive the processes for the development of phenotypic traits. A mutation occurring in a gene alters the DNA sequence of the gene. Changing gene segment sequences most often results in non-functioning proteins. In a pleiotropic gene, all of the traits associated with the gene will be altered by the mutation. Gene pleiotropy, also referred to as molecular-gene pleiotropy, focuses on the number of functions of a particular gene. The functions are determined by the number of traits and biochemical factors impacted by a gene. Biochemical factors include the number of enzyme reactions catalyzed by the protein products of the gene. Developmental pleiotropy focuses on mutations and their influence on multiple traits. The mutation of a single gene manifests in the alteration of several different traits. Diseases involving mutational pleiotropy are characterized by deficiencies in multiple organs that impact several body systems. Selectional pleiotropy focuses on the number of separate fitness components affected by a gene mutation. The term fitness relates to how successful a particular organism is at transferring its genes to the next generation through sexual reproduction. This type of pleiotropy is concerned only with the impact of natural selection on traits. Pleiotropy Examples An example of pleiotropy that occurs in humans is sickle cell disease. Sickle cell disorder results from the development of abnormally shaped red blood cells. Normal red blood cells have a biconcave, disc-like shape and contain enormous amounts of a protein called hemoglobin. Comparison of sickle cells and normal red blood cells.   ttsz / Getty Images Plus Hemoglobin helps red blood cells bind to and transport oxygen to cells and tissues of the body. Sickle cell is a result of a mutation in the beta-globin gene. This mutation results in red blood cells that are sickle-shaped, which causes them to clump together and become stuck in blood vessels, blocking normal blood flow. The single mutation of the beta-globin gene results in various health complications and causes damage to multiple organs including the heart, brain, and lungs. PKU PKU Testing.   Scientifica / Getty Images Plus Phenylketonuria, or PKU, is another disease resulting from pleiotropy. PKU is caused by a mutation of the gene responsible for the production of an enzyme called phenylalanine hydroxylase. This enzyme breaks down the amino acid phenylalanine that we get from protein digestion. Without this enzyme, levels of the amino acid phenylalanine increase in the blood and damage the nervous system in infants. PKU disorder may result in several conditions in infants including intellectual disabilities, seizures, heart problems, and developmental delays. Frizzled Feather Trait This image illustrates aspects of the frizzle chicken phenotype. Adult homozygous frizzle chicken feathers curve away from the body.   Ng, Chen Siang, et al. PLoS Genet 8(7): e1002748. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1002748 The frizzled feather trait is an example of pleiotropy seen in chickens. Chickens with this particular mutated feather gene display feathers that curl outward as opposed to lying flat. In addition to curled feathers, other pleiotropic effects include a faster metabolism and enlarged organs. The curling of the feathers leads to a loss of body heat requiring a faster basal metabolism to maintain homeostasis. Other biological changes include higher food consumption, infertility, and sexual maturation delays. Antagonistic Pleiotropy Hypothesis Antagonistic pleiotropy is a theory proposed to explain how senescence, or biological aging, can be attributed to natural selection of certain pleiotropic alleles. In antagonistic pleiotropy, an allele that has a negative impact on an organism can be favored by natural selection if the allele also produces advantageous effects. Antagonistically pleiotropic alleles that increase reproductive fitness early in life but promote biological aging later in life tend to be selected for by natural selection. The positive phenotypes of the pleiotropic gene are expressed early when reproductive success is high, while the negative phenotypes are expressed later in life when reproductive success is low. SEM of sickle cell and normal red blood cells.   Callista Images / Getty Images Sickle cell trait is an example of antagonistic pleiotropy in that the Hb-S allele mutation of the hemoglobin gene provides advantages and disadvantages for survival. Those who are homozygous for the Hb-S allele, meaning that they have two Hb-S alleles of the hemoglobin gene, have a short life span due to the negative impact (damage to multiple body systems) of the sickle cell trait. Those who are heterozygous for the trait, meaning that they have one Hb-S allele and one normal allele of the hemoglobin gene, do not experience the same degree of negative symptoms and show resistance to malaria. The frequency of the Hb-S allele is higher in populations and regions where malaria rates are high. Sources Carter, Ashley Jr, and Andrew Q Nguyen. Antagonistic Pleiotropy as a Widespread Mechanism for the Maintenance of Polymorphic Disease Alleles. BMC Medical Genetics, vol. 12, no. 1, 2011, doi:10.1186/1471-2350-12-160.Ng, Chen Siang, et al. The Chicken Frizzle Feather Is Due to an ÃŽ ±-Keratin (KRT75) Mutation That Causes a Defective Rachis. PLoS Genetics, vol. 8, no. 7, 2012, doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002748.  Paaby, Annalise B., and Matthew V. Rockman. The Many Faces of Pleiotropy. Trends in Genetics, vol. 29, no. 2, 2013, pp. 66–73., doi:10.1016/j.tig.2012.10.010.  Ã‚  Phenylketonuria. U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/phenylketonuria.

Evolution of Slavery in Justice Essay - 1183 Words

Slavery is immoral. Why? Because we hold this truth to be self-evident: that all men are created equal? Because life, liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness are unalienable rights endowed by our Creator? (â€Å"Declaration of Independence.† 1776.) Well, not all men are created equal. At least according to our Founding Fathers, African tribes, 18th century Europeans, the ancient Romans and Greeks, and †¦ the Bible. As a matter of fact, slavery has not been immoral from humanity’s (also to be interpreted as America’s) standpoint but for only 150 years. Why then can we so firmly and undeniably declare that slavery is immoral? The answer lies in the writings of great political visionaries like Solon, Aristotle, Cicero, Locke, Marx, and Lincoln.†¦show more content†¦Acknowledging the sanctity of human life was the first step towards the abolition of slavery. With the sanctity of human life comes Moses, Exodus, and the Ten Commandments. Moses delivered the Israelites from slavery and together they journeyed to Mount Sinai where God gave Moses the sacred stone tablets. These tablets were inscribed not only with the Ten Commandments, but also with new ethical laws that the Israelites were to obey. What tends to be lost in translation, however, is the specific laws regarding slavery. Hebrew men were allowed to purchase other Hebrew men as slaves, but they may only enslave them for a total of six years. The families belonging to the enslaved party will be handed over to the purchaser unless the slave was married beforehand. Men who bought Hebrew women as slaves did not have to release them after the six year period. Instead the man is only limited in the fact that he cannot sell her to foreigners. (Exodus 21:2-11 NLT.) Moses had seen the cruelties that befall slaves, so he attempted to define a more justifiable form of slavery. By freeing the Hebrew males after six years, Moses is acknowledging that there is a limit on how harsh the term of enslavement can be. In just three hundred years the morality of slavery has shifted from, â€Å"One man cannot harm another man’s slave,† to, â€Å"Slavery of certain people is only justifiable for a small number of years, and then they must be set free.† The foundation laid by the Code ofShow MoreRelatedJohn Locke: Second Treatise of Civil Government Essay900 Words   |  4 Pagesunder these circumstances is the person who has been wronged. The basic principle of justice is that the punishment should be proportionate to the crime. When victims are judging a crime; they likely to judge it of greater severity than an impartial judge. As a result, there will be miscarriages of justice. Slavery: Is the state of being in the absolute or arbitrary power of another. On Lockes definition of slavery there is only one way to become a legitimate slave. 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Supply of Gas in Australia-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Analyze the Market type that usually Prevails in Supply of Gas in Australia. Answer: Introduction: Economics as a subject deals with market and market dynamics among other concepts. A market is generally known to be a place where buyers and sellers interact in order to maximize individual as well as overall welfare. Markets, however, can be of different types based on the nature of commodity, number of buyers and sellers and other determining factors. A perfectly competitive market is an extreme example of free market with no barriers and uniform distribution of market power among buyers and sellers (Kirzner 2015). However, there are obvious exceptions to this hypothetical market namely, oligopoly, monopolistic competition and monopoly. These are generally examples of imperfectly competitive ones, monopoly being the other extreme form of market. The report tries to analyze the market type that usually prevails in supply of gas in Australia. To study the market type and the consequences of that market on the concerned industry the report takes reference of the article named, Gas su pplier monopoly pricing hits domestic users hard: ACCC, by Stephen Letts (Abc.net.au, 2017). Storys Essence: Monopoly market implies the presence of single seller or seller group in an economy with innumerable buyers, thereby implying that the seller enjoys almost all of the market power and price making powers. The article takes into account the presence of monopoly pricing powers of the eastern state suppliers of gas and operators of pipelines. It tries to address the issue of misusage of this monopoly power by these gas providers in the country (Gillespie 2014). The assessment conducted by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission shows the presence of substantial evidences of monopoly pricing by majority of the gas providers in this region. In addition to monopoly pricing, the absence of appropriate and sufficient regulatory measures is also noticed in this market (Abc.net.au, 2017). Gas being one of the most essential household consumption commodity and a primary source of energy for Australian households, this issue raises concern among the government officials and policy mak ers. The commodity in conern being one of the primary essential ones, the suppliers are enjoying a tremendously high demand for their product, thereby gaining control of huge market power. On the other hand, monopoly power of these suppliers collectively and a presence of cost effectiveness are keeping out any kind of external competition out of the market, thereby making the consumers the direct sufferers of this issue (Ekelund Jr and Hbert 2013). The market though claimed to be highly regulated, in reality lacks proper regulatory measures, with even less than twenty per cent of the east cost suppliers coming under the regulations of the National Gas Law of the country. The industry also suffers from lack of transparency regarding imposition of restrictions and policy implications thereby affecting the clientele adversely (Nelson et al. 2013). Economic Interpretations: Monopoly market necessarily implies the presence of full market power in the hand of the supplier, as he is the only one supplying the product, which in general is assumed to have considerably high demand. The only interest of a monopolist is necessarily maximization of his own profit. The seller being a price-maker and not a price-maker, in the long run he is expected to earn economic profit as the surplus generated is attributed to him solely (Longley 2013). From the above figure, it can be seen that, in this market, due to a presence of difference between the cost of production and the price at which it is sold there is presence of economic profit for the supplier in the long ring unlike that of the perfectly competitive market (Rios, McConnell and Brue 2013). The above discussion implies that, in this scenario due to the presence of monopoly power in the hand of the gas providers and a simultaneous absence of appropriate regulatory policies on these providers, they are trying to maximize their economic profit and to do that they are resorting to stiff monopoly pricing in this market (Abc.net.au, 2017). Policy Recommendations: The continuous and stiff monopoly pricing by the gas suppliers cartel and consequent sufferings of the direct consumers of the product, which includes the households of the Australian economy, can be controlled with the help of correcting restrictive policy measures on part of the government. The projected price hike in this sector can be curbed to considerable extent with the help of price control mechanisms such as imposition of price ceilings on these producers which will force them to keep their prices below a certain maximum level. Monopoly power of these producers can also be decreased by opening the market to foreign competitors, who will help in taking the overall price levels down to certain extent (Cramton and Ockenfels 2012). Conclusion: It is evident from the above discussion that currently Australia is facing a monopolistic situation in the market of one of its most essential household commodity. This is posing as a matter of great concern for the Australian government. The absence of proper regulatory mechanism in the market being the main reason for this monopoly pricing, imposition of proper price ceilings and opening the market to potential competitors of these gas providers, can solve this particular problem substantially References Abc.net.au (2017).Gas supplier monopoly pricing hits domestic users hard: ACCC. [online] ABC News. Available at: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-04-22/gas-supplier-monopoly-pricing-hits-domestic-users/7350338 [Accessed 24 Aug. 2017]. Cramton, P. and Ockenfels, A., 2012. Economics and design of capacity markets for the power sector.Zeitschrift fr Energiewirtschaft,36(2), pp.113-134. Ekelund Jr, R.B. and Hbert, R.F., 2013.A history of economic theory and method. Waveland Press. Gillespie, A., 2014.Foundations of economics. Oxford University Press, USA. Kirzner, I.M., 2015.Competition and entrepreneurship. University of Chicago press. Longley, N., 2013. Introduction. InAn Absence of Competition(pp. 1-7). Springer New York. Nelson, T., Nelson, J., Ariyaratnam, J. and Camroux, S., 2013. An analysis of Australia's large scale renewable energy target: Restoring market confidence.Energy Policy,62, pp.386-400. Rios, M.C., McConnell, C.R. and Brue, S.L., 2013. Economics: Principles, problems, and policies. McGraw-Hi

The winner is one Review Essay Example

The winner is one Review Paper Essay on The winner is one With the work of Paulo Coelho I already knew before reading this book, and without guile, I can say that it works I sympathize. Therefore, the new novel of his, I began to read, while in some anticipation, especially considering the intriguing title. The plot, I must say, is not devoid of originality, though it can not be called a genius. Rich successful Russian businessman, who some time ago abandoned his wife, arrives at the Cannes Film Festival, where at the moment are his ex-wife with a new lover. Arrives and begins one by one to kill random people. Guilt him, however, almost no glozhit, because he believes that this is his mission and for the sake of love should go all out! In parallel with the storyline develops and sideline. And it demonstrates the history of people trying to get into the world of fashion and beauty, movies and celebrities. And impressions of people have already achieved in this area very top. Reveals the basic principles of functioning of the world of fashion and cinema. For me, the story line of a side is quite clear, there is much to ponder. To reflect on the true values ​​of the person, his aspirations and meet the expectations of rich and poor, goals and achievements of greed, deceit and the influence of money on the fate and behavior of the people and of how false and strange is the world of fashion and a great movie. We will write a custom essay sample on The winner is one Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The winner is one Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The winner is one Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer With the storyline difficult. In any case, I, as yet, failed to grasp its meaning and to understand what the author wanted to convey. The intertwining of these complex emotions such as love, jealousy, hatred, taking sometimes very intricate shapes. And the ending of this story another confirmation of this. Ironically, but I was fascinated by the protagonist (Igor), but I can not justify his murder. If it happened in real life and touched me, that the victim would have been me or one of the people close to me, I would have called him a crazed, unfeeling brute, which is not clear from what motives imagines himself the supreme arbiter. In fact, in the shower until the last warmth something like hope that it will not get caught. Strange :) The style is not quite standard. The narrative throughout the book switched with the story about the thoughts and actions of one character to another, being diluted biographies and experiences of persons of tritium. All the action of the book takes place in the context of a single day. In summary we can say that this book deserves to be read and is an actual relatively prosperous today the world of fashion and cinema. And much love and so much the more is a timeless and classical theme.